(of two-stroke engines)

• двуталтов двигател

< mot> (of two-stroke engines) ■ Auspuffstaudruck m ; Auspuffrückstau m

<mvhcl.emiss> (of exhaust systems, gen. and four-stroke engines) ■ Abgasstaudruck m ; Abgasgegendruck m ; Staudruck m prakt ; Gegendruck m ugs ; Rückdruck m rar

< mot> (of engines; positive displacement and turbocharging) ■ Aufladung f ; Aufladen n

< mot> (overcharging of performance engines) ■ Überladung f

<mvhcl.mot> (pressure-wave effect on two-stroke engines) ■ Nachladung f

< mot> (two-stroke engines) ■ Gleichstromspülung f ; Längsspülung f

US.pract < mot> (for two-stroke engines; e.g. for lawn mowers, chain saws, bikes) ■ Kraftstoff/Öl-Gemisch n ; Kraftstoff/Öl-Mischung f ; Gemisch n prakt ; Zweitaktgemisch n ugs

US < mot> (for two-stroke engines; e.g. for lawn mowers, chain saws, bikes) ■ Kraftstoff/Öl-Gemisch n ; Kraftstoff/Öl-Mischung f ; Gemisch n prakt ; Zweitaktgemisch n ugs

GB.pract < mot> (for two-stroke engines; e.g. for lawn mowers, chain saws, bikes) ■ Kraftstoff/Öl-Gemisch n ; Kraftstoff/Öl-Mischung f ; Gemisch n prakt ; Zweitaktgemisch n ugs

GB < mot> (for two-stroke engines; e.g. for lawn mowers, chain saws, bikes) ■ Kraftstoff/Öl-Gemisch n ; Kraftstoff/Öl-Mischung f ; Gemisch n prakt ; Zweitaktgemisch n ugs

rare < mot> (operational parameter of two-stroke engines) ■ Zeitquerschnitt m

< mot> (of two-stroke engines) ■ Steuerdiagramm n

<mvhcl.mot> (inlet control for two-stroke engines) ■ Einlassmembranventil n

US < mot> (two-stroke engines) ■ Gleichstromspülung f ; Längsspülung f

< mot> (operational parameter of two-stroke engines) ■ Zeitquerschnitt m

< mot> (two-stroke engines) ■ Gleichstromspülung f ; Längsspülung f

< mot> (two-stroke engines) ■ Gleichstromspülung f ; Längsspülung f

< mot> (two-stroke engines) ■ Gleichstromspülung f ; Längsspülung f

SUBJECT AREA: Automotive engineering, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Clerk began his engineering training at about the age of 15 in the drawing office of H.O.Robinson \& Company, Glasgow, and in his father's works. Meanwhile, he studied at the West of Scotland Technical College and then, from 1871 to 1876, at Anderson's College, Glasgow, and at the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds. Here he worked under and then became assistant to the distinguished chemist T.E.Thorpe, who set him to work on the fractional distillation of petroleum, which was to be useful to him in his later work. At that time he had intended to become a chemical engineer, but seeing a Lenoir gas engine at work, after his return to Glasgow, turned his main interest to gas and other internal combustion engines. He pursued his investigations first at Thomson, Sterne \& Company (1877–85) and then at Tangyes of Birmingham (1886–88. In 1888 he began a lifelong partnership in Marks and Clerk, consulting engineers and patent agents, in London.

Beginning his work on gas engines in 1876, he achieved two patents in the two following years. In 1878 he made his principal invention, patented in 1881, of an engine working on the two-stroke cycle, in which the piston is powered during each revolution of the crankshaft, instead of alternate revolutions as in the Otto four-stroke cycle. In this engine, Clerk introduced supercharging, or increasing the pressure of the air intake. Many engines of the Clerk type were made but their popularity waned after the patent for the Otto engine expired in 1890. Interest was later revived, particularly for application to large gas engines, but Clerk's engine eventually came into its own where simple, low-power motors are needed, such as in motor cycles or motor mowers.

Clerk's work on the theory and design of gas engines bore fruit in the book The Gas Engine (1886), republished with an extended text in 1909 as The Gas, Petrol and Oil Engine; these and a number of papers in scientific journals won him international renown. During and after the First World War, Clerk widened the scope of his interests and served, often as chairman, on many bodies in the field of science and industry.

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SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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William was the second son and one of eleven children of Samuel Priestman, who had moved to Hull after retiring as a corn miller in Kirkstall, Leeds, and who in retirement had become a director of the North Eastern Railway Company. The family were strict Quakers, so William was sent to the Quaker School in Bootham, York. He left school at the age of 17 to start an engineering apprenticeship at the Humber Iron Works, but this company failed so the apprenticeship was continued with the North Eastern Railway, Gateshead. In 1869 he joined the hydraulics department of Sir William Armstrong \& Company, Newcastle upon Tyne, but after a year there his father financed him in business at a small, run down works, the Holderness Foundry, Hull. He was soon joined by his brother, Samuel, their main business being the manufacture of dredging equipment (grabs), cranes and winches. In the late 1870s William became interested in internal combustion engines. He took a sublicence to manufacture petrol engines to the patents of Eugène Etève of Paris from the British licensees, Moll and Dando. These engines operated in a similar manner to the non-compression gas engines of Lenoir. Failure to make the two-stroke version of this engine work satisfactorily forced him to pay royalties to Crossley Bros, the British licensees of the Otto four-stroke patents.

Fear of the dangers of petrol as a fuel, reflected by the associated very high insurance premiums, led William to experiment with the use of lamp oil as an engine fuel. His first of many patents was for a vaporizer. This was in 1885, well before Ackroyd Stuart. What distinguished the Priestman engine was the provision of an air pump which pressurized the fuel tank, outlets at the top and bottom of which led to a fuel atomizer injecting continuously into a vaporizing chamber heated by the exhaust gases. A spring-loaded inlet valve connected the chamber to the atmosphere, with the inlet valve proper between the chamber and the working cylinder being camoperated. A plug valve in the fuel line and a butterfly valve at the inlet to the chamber were operated, via a linkage, by the speed governor; this is believed to be the first use of this method of control. It was found that vaporization was only partly achieved, the higher fractions of the fuel condensing on the cylinder walls. A virtue was made of this as it provided vital lubrication. A starting system had to be provided, this comprising a lamp for preheating the vaporizing chamber and a hand pump for pressurizing the fuel tank.

Engines of 2–10 hp (1.5–7.5 kW) were exhibited to the press in 1886; of these, a vertical engine was installed in a tram car and one of the horizontals in a motor dray. In 1888, engines were shown publicly at the Royal Agricultural Show, while in 1890 two-cylinder vertical marine engines were introduced in sizes from 2 to 10 hp (1.5–7.5 kW), and later double-acting ones up to some 60 hp (45 kW). First, clutch and gearbox reversing was used, but reversing propellers were fitted later (Priestman patent of 1892). In the same year a factory was established in Philadelphia, USA, where engines in the range 5–20 hp (3.7–15 kW) were made. Construction was radically different from that of the previous ones, the bosses of the twin flywheels acting as crank discs with the main bearings on the outside.

On independent test in 1892, a Priestman engine achieved a full-load brake thermal efficiency of some 14 per cent, a very creditable figure for a compression ratio limited to under 3:1 by detonation problems. However, efficiency at low loads fell off seriously owing to the throttle governing, and the engines were heavy, complex and expensive compared with the competition.

Decline in sales of dredging equipment and bad debts forced the firm into insolvency in 1895 and receivers took over. A new company was formed, the brothers being excluded. However, they were able to attend board meetings, but to exert no influence. Engine activities ceased in about 1904 after over 1,000 engines had been made. It is probable that the Quaker ethics of the brothers were out of place in a business that was becoming increasingly cut-throat. William spent the rest of his long life serving others.

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- engine accessories

- engine balance

- engine base

- engine bay

- engine bearer

- engine bed

- engine behavior

- engine block

- engine block heater

- engine bracket

- engine brake

- engine braking

- engine braking effect

- engine case

- engine casing

- engine clutch

- engine clutch housing

- engine compartment

- engine compartment lamp

- engine controls

- engine cooler

- engine cowling

- engine cradle

- engine cranking

- engine cross-drive

- engine displacement

- engine drive

- engine-driven

- engine-driven compressor

- engine-driven industrial truck

- engine is dead

- engine is running rough

- engine mount damper

- engine mount system

- engine support cushion

- engine suspension

- engine test bed

- engine test rig

- adiabatic engine

- agricultural engine

- agricultural traction engine

- air engine

- air-cell diesel engine

- air chamber diesel engine

- air-cooled engine

- air-cooled flat twin engine

- aircraft engine

- air injection engine

- airless-injection Diesel engine

- alcohol engine

- aluminium engine

- antechamber compression ignition engine

- Armstrong-Whitworth variable compression knocktesting engine

- arrow engine

- aspitare engine

- automobile engine

- automomotive engine

- axial engine

- B-type engine

- balance shaft engine

- bare engine

- barrel engine

- barring engine

- basic engine

- beam engine

- binary vapour engine

- blast engine

- blast furnace gas engine

- blowing engine

- blown engine

- broad-arrow engine

- build up an engine

- bus engine

- capstane engine

- carburetor engine

- charcoal-burning engine

- coal-dust engine

- coke-oven gas engine

- cold engine

- cold-starting engine

- cold-starting heavy-oil engine

- combustion engine

- compound engine

- compression ignition engine

- condensating engine

- constant-duty engine

- counterbalanced engine

- coupled engines

- cowled engine

- crosshead engine

- crosswise engine

- dead engine

- derated engine

- differential engine

- direct-drive engine

- donkey engine

- door engine

- double-acting engine

- double-acting rotary engine

- double-acting steam engine

- double-bank radial engine

- double-cylinder engine

- double-expansion engine

- double-piston engine

- double-pistontype engine

- double-row engine

- double-V engine

- dredge engine

- dry sump engine

- dual-fuel engine

- eight-cylinder engine

- experimental engine

- hot

- start up the engine in gear

- swirl-chamber diesel engine

- switch engine

SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Orphaned as a child, Hamilton went to work for Southern Pacific Railroad in his teens, and then worked for several other companies. In his spare time he learned mathematics and physics from a retired professor. In 1911 he joined the White Motor Company, makers of road motor vehicles in Denver, Colorado, where he had gone to recuperate from malaria. He remained there until 1922, apart from an eighteenth-month break for war service.

Upon his return from war service, Hamilton found White selling petrol-engined railbuses with mechanical transmission, based on road vehicles, to railways. He noted that they were not robust enough and that the success of petrol railcars with electric transmission, built by General Electric since 1906, was limited as they were complex to drive and maintain. In 1922 Hamilton formed, and became President of, the Electro- Motive Engineering Corporation (later Electro-Motive Corporation) to design and produce petrol-electric rail cars. Needing an engine larger than those used in road vehicles, yet lighter and faster than marine engines, he approached the Win ton Engine Company to develop a suitable engine; in addition, General Electric provided electric transmission with a simplified control system. Using these components, Hamilton arranged for his petrol-electric railcars to be built by the St Louis Car Company, with the first being completed in 1924. It was the beginning of a highly successful series. Fuel costs were lower than for steam trains and initial costs were kept down by using standardized vehicles instead of designing for individual railways. Maintenance costs were minimized because Electro-Motive kept stocks of spare parts and supplied replacement units when necessary. As more powerful, 800 hp (600 kW) railcars were produced, railways tended to use them to haul trailer vehicles, although that practice reduced the fuel saving. By the end of the decade Electro-Motive needed engines more powerful still and therefore had to use cheap fuel. Diesel engines of the period, such as those that Winton had made for some years, were too heavy in relation to their power, and too slow and sluggish for rail use. Their fuel-injection system was erratic and insufficiently robust and Hamilton concluded that a separate injector was needed for each cylinder.

In 1930 Electro-Motive Corporation and Winton were acquired by General Motors in pursuance of their aim to develop a diesel engine suitable for rail traction, with the use of unit fuel injectors; Hamilton retained his position as President. At this time, industrial depression had combined with road and air competition to undermine railway-passenger business, and Ralph Budd, President of the Chicago, Burlington \& Quincy Railroad, thought that traffic could be recovered by way of high-speed, luxury motor trains; hence the Pioneer Zephyr was built for the Burlington. This comprised a 600 hp (450 kW), lightweight, two-stroke, diesel engine developed by General Motors (model 201 A), with electric transmission, that powered a streamlined train of three articulated coaches. This train demonstrated its powers on 26 May 1934 by running non-stop from Denver to Chicago, a distance of 1,015 miles (1,635 km), in 13 hours and 6 minutes, when the fastest steam schedule was 26 hours. Hamilton and Budd were among those on board the train, and it ushered in an era of high-speed diesel trains in the USA. By then Hamilton, with General Motors backing, was planning to use the lightweight engine to power diesel-electric locomotives. Their layout was derived not from steam locomotives, but from the standard American boxcar. The power plant was mounted within the body and powered the bogies, and driver's cabs were at each end. Two 900 hp (670 kW) engines were mounted in a single car to become an 1,800 hp (l,340 kW) locomotive, which could be operated in multiple by a single driver to form a 3,600 hp (2,680 kW) locomotive. To keep costs down, standard locomotives could be mass-produced rather than needing individual designs for each railway, as with steam locomotives. Two units of this type were completed in 1935 and sent on trial throughout much of the USA. They were able to match steam locomotive performance, with considerable economies: fuel costs alone were halved and there was much less wear on the track. In the same year, Electro-Motive began manufacturing diesel-electrie locomotives at La Grange, Illinois, with design modifications: the driver was placed high up above a projecting nose, which improved visibility and provided protection in the event of collision on unguarded level crossings; six-wheeled bogies were introduced, to reduce axle loading and improve stability. The first production passenger locomotives emerged from La Grange in 1937, and by early 1939 seventy units were in service. Meanwhile, improved engines had been developed and were being made at La Grange, and late in 1939 a prototype, four-unit, 5,400 hp (4,000 kW) diesel-electric locomotive for freight trains was produced and sent out on test from coast to coast; production versions appeared late in 1940. After an interval from 1941 to 1943, when Electro-Motive produced diesel engines for military and naval use, locomotive production resumed in quantity in 1944, and within a few years diesel power replaced steam on most railways in the USA.

Hal Hamilton remained President of Electro-Motive Corporation until 1942, when it became a division of General Motors, of which he became Vice-President.

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